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My name is Dr Mark Ashton Smith. I am a cognitive neuroscientist trained at the Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition. For a number of years I was a lecturer and researcher in the Psychology Department at the University of Cambridge, and I am currently a Lecturer in Cognitive Psychology & Neuroscience at the University of Essex Online. I have been researching cognitive interventions and the principles of effective brain training for two decades. Research in the past few years in cognitive neuroscience has been remarkably helpful in figuring out what works and what doesn’t work. The information in this article summarises key findings from my research, culminating in the TRAIN method for far transfer.

The Hard Problem for Brain Training: Far Transfer

Many brain training programs promise to boost cognitive skills like working memory. And while it is true that you can get better at specific tasks through practice, the problem is that in mainstream brain training these gains don’t translate to improvements in other, more valuable areas of life. For example, you might get really good at a short-term memory game, but that doesn’t necessarily mean you’ll see improvements in your day to day problem-solving, decision-making or learning. This is called ‘far transfer.’

This issue isn’t just limited to working memory – it’s a broader problem that affects other cognitive abilities like attention, reasoning, and creative thinking.

The big question is: why do these skills seem so ‘sticky’ and locked into the specific tasks you practice? And more importantly, what does it take to make sure that the benefits of brain training actually transfer to general gains in IQ and the benefits of this for real cognitive challenges that matter most to us?

Effective Brain Training for Far Transfer

Effective brain training, based on my research and the latest findings in cognitive neuroscience, can be summarised in three figures. The first is the brain training protocol for effective ‘far transfer’ from your training. The second and third figures illustrate the explanatory mechanisms behind the effectiveness of this protocol.

The Brain Training Protocol

  1. Mindfulness: In the evening, before beginning your working memory (DNB) or attention training session, you can practice a mindfulness meditation session. This should be open monitoring (OM) mindfulness, trained via a focused attention (breath counting) mindfulness foundation. This helps you achieve a brain critical state, enhancing your brain’s capacity for dynamic reconfiguration and neuroplasticity during the subsequent dual n-back training.
  2. Skill Training Phase: During dual n-back training, the brain’s segregated networks are consolidated over time, refining model-free routines. These routines, reinforced by prediction error signals, become more efficient and automatic, contributing to the development of crystallised intelligence. This training phase increases your cognitive efficiency.
  3. Mindware Strategy Training Phase: In the mindware training phase (e.g. using decision trees in your minds eye or problem solving methods) the brain’s integrated networks tap the efficient working memory skills in new, complex decision-making and problem-solving scenarios. Due to a hippocampal coding mechanism (see below), the autopilot skills developed during n-back training can be flexibly deployed while you practice using these high level strategies. This training phase increases your cognitive capacity.
  4. Metacognition: Metacognitive practices such as self-explanation and reflective reasoning are always applied while training with and applying the mindware. This also helps with the transfer of your app-based training.
  5. Sleep: You ensure that you get restful and regular sleep – particularly slow wave, deep sleep – while you are training to harness the learning and consolidation benefits of sleep.
  6. 7. 8. Daily Mindware Application: To maintain the brain in a near-critical state during daily cognitive challenges, you practice brief mindfulness ‘reset’ prior to applying your mindware to get in the zone for making decisions or solving problems. Applying your training to real life demonstrates the effectiveness of the training, helping with your performance mindset.

Having a performance mindset and expectations of success (9) is critical to the success of the training program. You need to look at this and decide protocol after reviewing the evidence and ask yourself: ‘Am I convinced this can be effective in raising my IQ?’ And ‘Can I invest the necessary time and effort into this program (roughly 20 days x 30 minutes) to see it to completion?’ Optionally, you can also work at raising your general fitness and Heart Rate Variability (HRV) which also benefits neuroplasticity for training gains, EQ and cognitive resilience (10).

There are guides for each of these steps in the Trident g program itself.

Performance Mindset & Placebo Effect

This model shows us how expectations can significantly enhance cognitive performance in the context of brain training. This model highlights the interplay between belief, engagement, and feedback in creating a self-reinforcing cycle that boosts IQ, measured by valid IQ tests, by 5-10 points – even in the absence of actual task-specific gains in cognitive skills. [Research articles: 1, 2]

1. The Performance Mindset

  • Role in Training: Central to this model is the performance mindset, which is triggered by the belief that cognitive training can increase IQ. This mindset is composed of several key beliefs:
    • Increase IQ Goal: The belief that enhancing intelligence is valuable and achievable.
    • High Self-Efficacy: Confidence that one’s efforts will lead to improved performance.
    • Good Benefit to Cost Tradeoff: The belief that the training is effective and the effort invested in training will yield significant returns in terms of cognitive gains.
  • When these beliefs are strong, they drive deeper engagement in the training tasks, leading to more focused attention and better quality practice, which in turn results in better cognitive performance, increasing IQ.

2. Engagement and Feedback Loops

  • Role in Training: The model shows that when individuals are engaged in cognitive tasks with a performance mindset, they are more likely to pay attention and practice with more skill. Positive feedback from these efforts, whether through in-game rewards or perceived improvements, reinforces this engagement.
  • Connection to Cognitive Training: This positive feedback loop, often referred to as a virtuous cycle, strengthens the performance mindset. The ongoing cycle of belief, engagement, and positive feedback can lead to continued cognitive performance improvements, even in areas beyond the specific training tasks – as reflected in improvements on IQ test scores in the research.

3. Dopamine and Reward Pathways

  • Role in Training: The model also highlights the role of dopamine, a neurotransmitter associated with the brain’s reward system, in reinforcing the performance mindset. Dopamine is released when individuals anticipate or experience positive outcomes, such as improved cognitive performance, thereby enhancing motivation and task engagement.
  • Connection to Cognitive Training: The dopamine-driven reward system can be activated not only by actual performance gains but also by the belief in training efficacy. This means that even placebo-driven expectations can lead to real increases in cognitive performance, as dopamine reinforces the cycle of engagement and positive feedback.

4. Long-Term Effects and Neuroplasticity

  • Role in Training: Over time, the sustained engagement and motivation fuelled by dopamine-driven feedback loops may lead to lasting changes in brain structure and function, a process known as neuroplasticity. This can result in more permanent cognitive improvements and a stronger, more resilient performance mindset.
  • Connection to Cognitive Training: Although initial gains may be placebo-driven, the long-term effects can solidify these gains into more stable cognitive abilities, potentially leading to broader improvements in general cognitive performance.

In summary, the performance-mindset model explains how the placebo effect in cognitive training can create a powerful self-reinforcing cycle of belief, engagement, and feedback that leads to real, measurable IQ gains of 5-10 points. By leveraging the brain’s reward pathways and the reinforcing nature of dopamine, this model explains how even the expectation of improvement can lead to measurable increases in cognitive performance. While the actual training tasks may have limited efficacy in boosting general intelligence, the mindset and motivation driven by placebo effects can result in significant, long-term cognitive benefits.

TRIDENT g Theory of Cognitive Ability

The Trident g theory of cognitive ability combines brain criticality and Free Energy (F) Principle research traditions, and is fully explored in this paper and this paper by Dr. Mark Ashton Smith.

The Trident g Model explains how the brain dynamically balances between crystallised intelligence (Gc), or automated routines, and fluid intelligence (Gf), or creative and executive reasoning. This balance is key to cognitive flexibility and effective problem-solving.

At the centre of this model lies the critical brain state, where the brain maintains an optimal balance between automatic processes (efficiency) and exploratory or creative thinking (flexibility). The near critical zone (red circle) is marked by metastability – the ability to jump fluidly between controlled cognition (lower entropy) and flexible, creative cognition (higher entropy), as well as between automatic routines, mindwandering, idea generation and task-focused problem solving.

  • Subcritical States: Governed by the Default Mode Network (DMN), these states are associated with highly automated, habitual thought processes or skills, or more random mind-wandering and free flow of thought.
  • Supercritical States: Involve more novel, goal-directed activities, governed by the Frontoparietal Control Networks (FPCN). The FPCN-A is linked to creative thinking and exploration, while the FPCN-B focuses on executive control, regulating behaviour and decision-making to reduce prediction errors and achieve specific goals.

Dopaminergic modulation plays a key role in maintaining this balance:

  • D1 receptor dominance corresponds to stability and automaticity, helping to consolidate learned skills and habitual responses.
  • D2 receptor dominance fosters flexibility and exploration, essential for creative ideation and adapting to new situations.

The Trident g Model maps how the brain moves dynamically between these states, driven by the need to balance prediction errors (free energy). By oscillating between executive, creative, and automatic/spontaneous modes, the brain can adapt to different task demands with both speed and flexibility. The model is called Trident g due to the three-branch structure resembling a trident, representing the dynamics of transitioning between automaticity, creativity, and executive control around the critical point. This model is foundational for understanding cognitive adaptability, and it underpins advanced training techniques such as the TRAIN system.

TRAIN Far Transfer Brain Training Method

This next model – don’t worry about the details – explains how IQ Mindware brain training can go beyond the placebo effect of mainstream brain training to increase IQ. The science behind this TRAIN method is explained in this article.

1. Mindfulness Meditation

  • Role in Training: .Mindfulness meditation optimises cognitive performance by tuning the brain into a state known as brain criticality (ϕ – phi). In this state, the brain operates at the critical balance between integration and segregation, where modular brain networks emerge. These modular networks facilitate information processing and dynamic reconfiguration, allowing the brain to shift smoothly between automatic skills and higher-order strategic reasoning. This balance between efficiency and flexibility supports far transfer, helping to integrate core cognitive skills learned during training into novel and complex contexts, thereby enhancing fluid intelligence (Gf) and IQ. Research suggests that brain networks with high modularity—closer to brain criticality—are biomarkers of far transfer, making this state ideal for flexible, adaptive problem-solving.
  • The Science: Mindfulness meditation has been shown to heighten brain criticality, promoting the brain’s ability to flexibly integrate and segregate neural networks, which is essential for far transfer. In particular, modular brain networks, characterised by this balance of integration and segregation, are closely linked to the adaptability needed for cognitive flexibility and far transfer. By training the brain to operate closer to this critical point, mindfulness meditation supports far transfer by enabling the brain to dynamically shift between automated routines and strategic reasoning. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

2. Core Cognitive Skills Training

Role in Training: This phase focuses on training core cognitive skills using adaptive brain training games like dual n-back tasks. Over time, these tasks automate high-level cognitive routines such as working memory updating, which are fundamental to many problem-solving and decision-making tasks. This process ensures these core skills require minimal cognitive effort, freeing up cognitive resources for more complex strategic reasoning in other contexts.

The Science: This phase corresponds to model-free learning, where repeated practice leads to the automation of cognitive skills. Through reward prediction errors (RPEs) and slow-wave sleep consolidation, these skills become habitual and efficient. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3]

3. Automated Skills: Efficiency Gains

Role in Training: These skills, developed during core cognitive skills training (such as dual n-back), become automatic and require minimal cognitive load. These automated skills can be flexibly accessed by higher-order strategic frameworks to support fluid intelligence (IQ) tasks, facilitating efficiency gains in complex problem-solving tasks. They also serve as the foundation for crystallised intelligence by providing stable, task-specific routines.

The Science: Automated skills are the result of model-free learning and operate via segregated neural networks, which perform efficiently within specific domains. These skills contribute to crystallised intelligence by reducing the cognitive demands for routine tasks, allowing for faster, more reliable responses. [Research articles: 1, 2]

4. Strategy Mindware Training: Capacity Gains

Role in Training: This phase is focused on developing flexible cognitive strategies (mindware) that involve context sensitivity, planning, and cognitive flexibility. These strategies rely on the integration of core skills into higher-order reasoning frameworks, enabling the brain to tackle more complex and novel problem-solving and learning tasks. Mindware training encourages far transfer by applying automated skills strategically across varied contexts.

The Science: Far transfer is supported by mindware training because it involves integrating automated skills into model-based reasoning frameworks. This phase depends on the interaction between segregated (automated) and integrated brain networks, supported by Successor Representation (SR) coding and hippocampal relational maps. [Research articles: 1, 2]

5. Hippocampal Maps

Role in Training: Hippocampal maps are crucial for encoding cognitive representations that link learned routines to future tasks. These maps provide a bridge between model-free skill automation and model-based strategic flexibility, making far transfer possible. By predicting future states through Successor Representations (SRs), hippocampal maps allow learned skills to be applied in novel contexts, adapting strategies as needed.

The Science: Hippocampal maps encode predictive SRs, which are used to generalise automated skills from core cognitive training to flexible mindware strategies. This enables the transfer of skills learned in structured tasks to new and complex problem-solving scenarios, supporting fluid intelligence (IQ) and the development of far transfer. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3]

6. Task Strategies

Role in Training: Some strategies, such as chunking in dual n-back tasks, can coordinate with mindware strategies by providing a foundation of cognitive routines. However, task-specific strategies should only facilitate far transfer if they help support mindware strategies or contribute to more general cognitive frameworks. Overly specific task strategies can prevent transfer, so the focus should be on higher-level routines that can generalise to broader problem-solving and learning tasks.

The Science: Task strategies are known to create performance breakthroughs in adaptive brain training games, where initial challenges are followed by gains in task efficiency. However, these strategies must be designed to transfer beyond specific tasks and contribute to mindware development, ensuring broader cognitive improvements. [Research article: 1]

7. Metacognition

Role in Training: Metacognition plays a vital role in monitoring, controlling, and planning cognitive activities. It enables individuals to detect errors in their thinking or performance, helping them adapt their strategies as needed. During mindware training, metacognition helps individuals assess the effectiveness of the strategies they are using, adapt these strategies to new tasks, and reflect on their thinking processes to improve problem-solving and decision-making. In real-life applications, metacognition aids in situational awareness—allowing individuals to detect when their current approach is suboptimal and switch to more analytic or strategic thinking.

The Science: Metacognitive practices such as error detection, self-explanation, and reflective reasoning are crucial for applying strategies effectively across various contexts. Error detection involves recognising discrepancies between expected outcomes and actual performance, prompting adjustments in cognitive approaches. This mechanism helps individuals manage cognitive load and ensures the transition from model-free (automatic) to model-based (deliberate) reasoning is effective. Through metacognition, individuals can fine-tune their strategies in real-time, bridging the gap between specific skills and general strategies, thereby enhancing far transfer by ensuring flexibility and adaptability in novel situations. [Research articles: 1, 2]

8. Sleep

Role in Training: Role in Training: Sleep, particularly slow-wave sleep (SWS), is crucial for consolidating both skills and strategies learned during training. During SWS, the brain replays and strengthens hippocampal maps and Successor Representations (SR). This process is key for consolidating automated routines from core cognitive skills training and integrating them with flexible strategies developed in mindware training. Sleep refines these cognitive routines, making them more adaptable for real-world problem-solving and decision-making.

The Science: During SWS, the brain engages in offline replay where hippocampal maps and SR coding are strengthened, solidifying both memory and strategic flexibility. Recent research shows that sleep plays a critical role in maintaining brain criticality through neuronal avalanches, which enhance the brain’s capacity for optimal computation and adaptability. These avalanche dynamics support brain reorganisation, promoting flexible information processing. This consolidation helps ensure that skills and strategies become generalisable across different contexts, facilitating far transfer. By integrating the gains from both skill-based training and strategy-based training, sleep helps improve overall cognitive performance. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5]

9. Comprehension & Understanding, Efficient Problem Solving & Learning, Decision-Making & Action Planning

Role in Training: These outcomes represent the application of the skills and strategies developed during the TRAIN method. Through successful far transfer, individuals can achieve improved comprehension, more efficient problem-solving, and better decision-making in real-world scenarios.

The Science: These elements reflect the functional outcomes of the TRAIN system, where the integration of skills-based (crystallised intelligence, Gc) and strategy-based (fluid intelligence, Gf) processes leads to enhanced cognitive performance. By dynamically applying automated routines in combination with flexible mindware strategies, the brain becomes better equipped for complex decision-making, learning, and action planning. The hippocampus and prefrontal cortex coordinate to ensure that learned routines are adapted and applied effectively in varied contexts, enabling long-term cognitive resilience and adaptability.

10. EQ & Cognitive Resilience

  • Role in Training: Emotional intelligence (EQ) and cognitive resilience are enhanced through the training process, leading to improved adaptability and stress management, which are crucial for applying cognitive skills in diverse situations.
  • The Science: The development of EQ and cognitive resilience is supported by mindfulness practices that disengage self-related evaluations, learning to balance cognitive load during training and attention control with skills-based training, and cognitive reframing from mindware training and the performance mindset. These cognitive and affective gains can help with cognitive resilience and the application of the cognitive gains from training over a wider range of stressful task-demands. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3]

11. Fitness & High HRV

  • Role in Training: Physical fitness and high heart rate variability (HRV) are foundational for cognitive resilience, adaptability, and overall mental health, all of which are key to the success of far transfer training. High HRV reflects a well-functioning autonomic nervous system, with greater flexibility in responding to stress and fluctuating cognitive demands. This flexibility translates to improved cognitive control, emotional regulation, and resilience during demanding tasks, making it essential for maintaining a performance mindset in the TRAIN method.
  • The Science: High HRV and physical fitness are directly linked to enhanced neuroplasticity, the brain’s ability to reorganise and form new neural connections. This adaptability supports far transfer by enabling the brain to flexibly integrate new information and generalise learned skills to novel situations. Physical fitness and HRV also play a critical role in maintaining brain criticality—the optimal state where the brain balances between order and chaos, or integration and segregation. In a critical state, the brain can more effectively reconfigure its neural networks, switching between model-free (automated) processes and model-based (strategic) reasoning. This dynamic switching is essential for transferring cognitive routines learned during training into new contexts, thus promoting far transfer and enhancing both fluid intelligence (Gf) and crystallised intelligence (Gc).
  • Furthermore, high HRV is associated with better emotional regulation and stress resilience, which enhances cognitive flexibility—allowing individuals to efficiently transition between different cognitive tasks and cope with increasing cognitive demands. This physiological support system ensures that the brain remains optimally tuned for learning, problem-solving, and decision-making during the far transfer training process. [Research articles: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]

12. Performance Mindset

  • Role in Training: A performance mindset, supported by self-efficacy and a positive evaluation of the training process, enhances engagement and the likelihood of achieving far transfer.
  • The Science: This is explained by the first figure and the section above. A performance mindset is crucial for deep engagement in the training tasks, which in turn supports the development of both automated skills and strategic cognitive processes necessary for far transfer. [Research articles: 1, 2]

Summary

The far transfer diagram above illustrates a comprehensive approach to brain training for far transfer, combining mindfulness, core cognitive skills, strategy mindware, metacognition, sleep, and a performance mindset into a cyclic process aimed at enhancing both crystallised and fluid intelligence, ultimately improving overall IQ. This process is underpinned by the Successor Representation (SR) framework, hippocampal maps, and dynamic brain network reconfiguration, which together ensure that skills and strategies developed during training are adaptable and transferable to real-world tasks. Sleep plays a crucial role in consolidating these skills and strategies, facilitating their integration into more flexible, generalisable cognitive routines. Moreover, the development of emotional intelligence (EQ), cognitive resilience, and physical fitness further enhances the brain’s capacity to adapt and perform under diverse cognitive demands.

By augmenting adaptability, problem-solving, and decision-making, this integrated approach not only boosts IQ but also promotes overall cognitive resilience, preparing the brain to thrive in complex, real-world environments. Ultimately, this method supports both IQ improvement and sustained cognitive health, making it a powerful and holistic model for brain training and cognitive enhancement.

Supplementary Training

Binaural Beats

To supplement the training method above, you can self-experiment with neural entrainment (gamma, alpha, and theta binaural beats) using a quick brain state test, in order to induce more optimal brain criticality for cognitive training..

  1. Gamma (γ) Wave Entrainment for Subcritical States:
    • Brain State Description: Subcritical brain states involve low arousal and responsiveness, which manifest as drowsiness, flatness or low motivation.
    • How Gamma Helps: Excitatory gamma waves support executive cognitive processing, attention focus & flexibility. Entraining the brain to this frequency can stimulate neural activity, enhancing alertness and improving cognitive performance, thus bringing the brain closer to a critical state if it is subcritical where it can best integrate and process information.
  2. Alpha (α) Wave Entrainment for Supercritical States:
    • Brain State Description: Supercritical states are marked by high arousal levels, which may include feelings of over-excitement, distractability or a racing mind.
    • How Alpha Helps: Inhibitory alpha waves are associated with relaxed, internally directed and ‘autopilot mode’ cognitive processing. Entrainment to alpha waves can help dampen an over-excited supercritical brain, reducing excessive neural firing to bring the brain back to criticality if it is initially supercritical.
  3. Theta (θ) Wave Entrainment for Optimal Near-Critical States:
    • State Description: An optimal or near-critical state is when the brain is engaged but not stressed, characterized by balanced alertness and calm – often experienced as being ‘in the zone.’
    • How Theta Helps: Theta waves are associated with hippocampal working memory function and relational processing. When the brain is already in an optimal brain critical state, theta entrainment can enhance cognitive processing for IQ and memory, and prime the brain for far-transfer training benefits. [article]

IQ Multipliers  

Multipliers in cognitive training involve leveraging environmental and social contexts that reinforce cognitive growth long-term, such as committing to break-through projects, learning communities or challenging work environments. These environmental and social supports extend the benefits of cognitive training by providing diverse, rich experiences that foster the continuous application and refinement of cognitive skills in various real-world settings. External factors can multiply the effects of inherent abilities and targeted cognitive training in  feedback cycles. How We Build It In: We suggest pivoting training around meaningful and challenging projects in real life.

IQ Mindware Published Research

Articles on the TRAIN far transfer method can be found here and here.

Research published in Frontiers in Psychology by Veloso & Ty (2020) has demonstrated both working memory gains and improved cognitive resilience from IQ Mindware app training – as quoted from their paper:

working memory gains IQ Mindwware

The scientific pee reviewed pre-print of the Trident G Training system by Dr. Mark Ashton Smith can be accessed by clicking on the icon.

Ashton Smith, M. (2024). Trident G: Free Energy & Brain Criticality Based Theory of Intelligence & Resilience. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/wnre3